Your American History Reference Guide! - List of European cities with alternative names
List of European cities with alternative names
Most cities in Europe have different names in different languages. Some cities have also undergone name changes for political or other reasons. This article attempts to give all known different names for all major European cities. It also includes some smaller towns that are important because of their location or history.
This article also lists cities of Turkey , Cyprus , and all the republics of the former Soviet Union . A number of important Mediterranean Basin cities are also included.
This article does not offer any opinion about what the "original", "official", "real", or "correct" name of any city is or was. Cities are listed alphabetically by their current best-known name in English . The English version is followed by variants in other languages, in alphabetical order by name, and then by any historical variants and former names.
Foreign names that are the same as their English equivalents may be listed, to provide an answer to the question "What is that name in..."?.
A
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Aabenraa
Ĺbenrĺ (Danish), Apenrade (German)
Aachen
Aix-la-Chapelle (French), Aken (Dutch), Akwizgran (Polish), Aquae Grani or Aquisgranum (Latin), Aquisgrŕ (Catalan), Aquisgrán (Spanish), Aquisgrana (Italian, Portuguese), Cáchy (Czech), Ĺxhe (Walloon)
Aalst
Aalst (Dutch), Alost (French)
Aarhus
Ĺrhus (Danish)
Abbeville
Abbatis Villa (Latin), Abbeville (French)
Adrianople
Adhrianúpolis - Αδριανούπολις (Greek), Adrianopel (German), Adrianopla (Portuguese), Adrianopol (Polish, Romanian, Slovak), Adrianopole (Romanian), Adrianopoli (Italian), Adrianopolis (Czech, Dutch), Adrianópolis (Spanish), Drinápoly (Hungarian), Drinopol (variant in Czech and Slovak), Edirne (Czech, Dutch, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish), Hadrianople (variant in English), Odrin (Bulgarian), Uskudama (Thracian)
Aiud
Aiud (Romanian), Nagyenyed (Hungarian), Strassburg (German)
Aix-en-Provence
Aix-en-Provence (French), Aquae Sextiae (Latin)
Aix-les-Bains
Aix-les-Bains (French), Aquae Gratianae (Latin)
Albacete
Albacete (Spanish), al-Basīt (Arabic)
Alba Iulia
Alba Iulia (Romanian), Apulum (Latin), Gyulafehérvár (Hungarian), Karlsburg (German), Weißenburg (old German name)
Alexandroupolis
Alexandhrúpolis - Αλεξανδρούπολις (Greek), Alexandropolis (Dutch), Dedeağaç (Turkish)
Algeciras
Algeciras (Spanish), al-Jazīra (Arabic)
Algiers
Algeri (Italian), Alger (French, Romanian), Algier (German, Polish), Algiers (Dutch), al-Jazā'ir (Arabic), Alžir (Serbian), Alžyras (Lithuanian), Argel (Portuguese, Spanish), Cezayir (Turkish), Icosium (Latin)
Alicante
Akra Leuke (Ancient Greek), Alacant (Catalan), Alicante (Spanish), Alikantė (Lithuanian), al-Laqant (Arabic), Lucentum (Latin)
Almaty
Alma-Ata (Dutch, Portuguese, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish), Ałma Ata (Polish), Almata (Lithuanian), Almaty (Kazakh)
Amsterdam
Amstardam (Irish), Amstardām (Arabic), Amsterdam (Dutch, French, Italian, Polish, Swedish), Amsterdamas (Lithuanian), Amsterdăo (Portuguese), Amsterodam (Czech), Amszterdam (Hungarian), Aemstelredamme / Amstelredam (old Dutch names)
Ankara
Ancara (Portuguese), Ancyra (Latin), Angora (former English name, Italian [obs.]), Ankara (Polish, Turkish), Ánkira - Άγκυρα (Greek), Anqara (Arabic)
Anklam
Anklam (German), Nakło nad Pianą (Polish)
Antioch
Antakya (Turkish), Antioche (French), Antiochia (Italian, German, Polish, Slovak), Antiochie (Czech), Antiohia (Romanian), Antiokia (Finnish, Swedish), Antioquía (Portuguese, Spanish)
Antwerp
Amberes (Spanish), Amvérsa - Αμβέρσα (Greek), Antuérpia (Portuguese), Antverpen (Russian, Serbian, Ukrainian), Antverpenas (Lithuanian), Antverpene (Latvian), Antverpy (Czech, Slovak), Antwīrb (Arabic), Antwerpen (Dutch, Finnish, German, Swedish), Antwerpia (Polish), Anvers (French), Anversa (Italian), Anviesse (Walloon)
Aquileia
Akwileja (Polish), Aquileia (Italian), Aquileja (German), Oglej (Slovene)
Archangel
Arcángel (Spanish), Archangelsk (German), Archangelskas (Lithuanian), Archangielsk (Polish), Arhanđel (Serbian), Arhanghelsk (Romanian), Arkangeli (Finnish), Arkhangel'sk (Russian)
Arlon
Arlon (French), Aarlen (Dutch), Arel (German)
Arnhem
Arnheim (German), Arnhem (Dutch, Polish), Arnhim (Frisian)
Arras
Arasu - アラス (Japanese), Arazzo (medieval Italian), Arras (French, German, Italian, Swedish), Atrecht (Dutch)
Aschaffenburg
Aschaffenburg (German), Aschaffenburgo (Spanish)
Ashkhabad
Ašchabád (Czech, Slovak), Aschchabad / Aschgabad / Aschgabat (German), Ašgabat (Finnish), Aşgabat / Aşkabat (Turkish), Aşhabad (Romanian), Ašhabad (Serbian), Ashgabat (Turkmen), Ashkhabad (Russian), Ashxobod (Uzbek), Asjchabad (Dutch), Aszchabad (Polish), Išq Ābād (Arabic)
Assisi
Ascesi (medieval Italian), Asís (Spanish), Assis (Portuguese), Assise (French), Assisi (Dutch, German, Italian), Asyż (Polish)
Astana
Akmolinsk (Russian), Akmola (Finnish), Akmola (variant in Russian), Akmoła (former Polish), Aqmola (former Kazakh), Astana (Kazakh, Polish), Tselinograd (former Russian)
Athens
Afiny (Russian, Ukrainian), An Aithin (Irish), Ateena (Finnish), Aten (Norwegian, Swedish) Aten - אַטען (Yiddish), Atena (Croatian, Romanian), Atėnai (Lithuanian), Atenas (Portuguese, Spanish), Atēnas (Latvian), Atene (Italian), Atenes (Catalan), Atény (Czech, Slovak), Ateny (Polish), Athen (Danish, German, Norwegian, Swedish), Athén (Hungarian), Aþena (Icelandic), Athenae (Latin), Athene (Dutch), Athčnes (French), Athény (alternative Czech name), Athína - Αθήνα (Greek), Atīnā (Arabic), Atina (Bulgarian, Serbian, Turkish)
Augsburg
Augsbourg (French), Augsburg (German, Polish), Augsburgo (Spanish), Augšpurk / Aušpurk (Czech), Augusta (Italian), Oogsborg (Low Saxon)
Avignon
Avenio (Latin), Avignon (French), Avignone (Italian), Avinhăo (Portuguese), Avińón (Spanish), Awinion (Polish)
B
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Baia Mare
Baia Mare (Romanian), Gross-Schlatten (German), Nagybanya (Hungarian)
Baku
Bakoe (Dutch), Bakou (French), Bākū (Arabic), Bakü (Turkish)
Bar (Montenegro)
Antivari (Italian), Bar (Croatian, Serbian); Dioclea or Doclea (Latin; ancient city nearby), Duklja (Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian; same ancient city and medieval state)
Barcelona
Barcellona (Italian), Barcelona (Portuguese, Spanish, Polish), Barcelone (French), Barcino (Latin), Barna (Spanish abbreviation), Baršalūna (Arabic), Barselona (Lithuanian, Russian, Serbian, Turkish, Ukrainian), Varkelóni - Βαρκελόνη (Greek), Bĺrçulone (Walloon)
Basel
Bâle (French), Basilea (Italian, Romansh, Spanish), Basileia (Portuguese), Basilej (Czech), Basle (variant in English), Bazel (Dutch), Bázel (Hungarian), Bazel' (Russian, Serbian, Ukrainian), Bazelis (Lithuanian), Bāzil (Arabic), Bazilej (Slovak), Bazylea (Polish), Vasilía - Βασιλεία (Greek)
Bastogne
Bastogne (English, French), Bastenaken (Dutch), Bastnach (German)
Bath
Aquae Sulis (Latin), Bađum / Bađan / Bađon (Anglo-Saxon), Caerfaddon (Welsh)
Bautzen
Budyšin (Upper Sorbian), Budyšín (Czech, Slovak), Budyšyn (Lower Sorbian), Budziszyn (Polish)
Będzin
Będzin (Polish), Bendin - Бендин (Russian), Bendin - בענדין (Yiddish), Bendzin (German)
Bela Crkva
Bela Crkva (Serbian), Biała Cerkiew (Polish), Bílá Cerevek (Czech)
Belfast
Béal Feirste (Irish), Belfastas (Lithuanian)
Belfort
Beffert (German), Befert (old German)
Belgrade
Béalgrád (Irish), Bělehrad (Czech), Belehrad (Slovak), Belgrad (Bulgarian, Finnish, German, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Turkish), Belgrád (Hungarian), Belgrada (Latvian), Belgradas (Lithuanian), Belgrado (Dutch, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Beograd (Croatian, Danish), Beograd - Београд (Serbian), Bilġrād (Arabic), Bjelhrad (Ukrainian), Nándorfehérvár (former Hungarian), Singidunum (Latin), Velighrádhi (Greek), Belgrade (French), Belgrĺde (Walloon)
Berat
Berat / Berati (Albanian), Albánský Bělehrad (Czech)
Berdychiv
Berdychiv - Бердичів (Ukrainian), Berdichev - Бердичев (Russian), Barditshev - באַרדיטשעװ (Yiddish), Berdyczów (Polish), Berdicev (Romanian),
Bergen (Norway)
Bergen (Norwegian), Bergenas (Lithuanian), Björgvin (Icelandic)
Berlin
Barlīn (Arabic), Barliń (Lower Sorbian), Beirlín (Irish), Berliin (Estonian), Berliini (Finnish), Berlijn (Dutch), Berlim (Portuguese), Berlín (Czech, Icelandic, Slovak, Spanish), Berlin (Croatian, Danish, German, Hungarian, Norwegian, Romanian, Swedish, French, Walloon), Berlin - בערלין (Yiddish), Berlīne (Latvian), Berlino (Italian, Esperanto), Berlyn (Afrikaans, Frisian), Berlynas (Lithuanian), Verolíno (Greek)
Berne
Bern (Czech, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, German, Russian, Slovak, Turkish, Ukrainian), Berna (Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Romansh, Spanish), Bernas (Lithuanian), Berno (Polish), Vérni - Βέρνη (Greek)
Białowieża
Bělověž (Czech), Białowieża (Polish)
Białystok
Białystok (Polish), Belostok - Белосток (Russian), Byalistok - ביאַליסטאָק (Yiddish)
Biel/Bienne
Belenus (Latin), Biel (German), Bienne (French)
Biella
Biella (Italian), Bugella (Latin)
Bilbao
Bilbao (Spanish), Bilbau (Portuguese), Bilbo (Basque),
Bil'shivtsi
Bil'shivtsi - Більшівці (Ukrainian), Bol'shovtsy - Болшовцы (Russian), Bolszowce (Polish), Bolshvets - באָלשװעץ (Yiddish)
Birmingham
Бирмингем (Russian)
Bishkek
Bichkek (French), Bischkek (German), Biškek (Finnish, Serbian), Bişkek (Romanian, Turkish), Biškekas (Lithuanian), Biszkek (Polish); Frunze (former name)
Bischofswerda
Bischofswerda (German), Biskupice (Polish)
Bistriţa
Beszterce (Hungarian), Bistriţa (Romanian), Bistritz (German)
Bologna
Bologna (Italian, Romanian), Bologne (French), Boloňa (Czech), Bolonha (Portuguese), Bolonia (Polish, Spanish), Bolonija (Lithuanian), Bolonja (Serbian), Bolonya (Turkish)
Bouillon
Bouillon (French), Bouyon (Walloon)
Bolzano
Bolzano (Italian), Bozen (German)
Bordeaux
Bordeaux (French), Bordču (Gascon), Bordéus (Portuguese), Bordo (Lithuanian), Bordozo (Esperanto), Burdeos (Spanish), Burdigala (Latin)
Bonn
Bona (Lithuanian, Portuguese), Bonna or Castrum Bonnense (Latin), Vóni - Βόννη (Greek)
Botoşani
Botoshan (alt. spelling)
Braniewo
Braniewo (Polish), Braunsberg (German), Brus (Old Prussian)
Braşov
Braşov (Romanian), Brassó (Hungarian), Braszów (Polish), Corona (Latin), Kronstadt (German), Stephanópolis (Greek)
Bratislava
Bratislava - Братислава (Bulgarian), Bratislava (Czech, Dutch, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Swedish), Bratyslava (Ukrainian), Bratysława (Polish), Pozsony (Hungarian), Presbourg (French till 1919), Pressburg (variant in German), Prešporok (Slovak till 1919) [Note: The name was officially changed from Pressburg /Prešporok /Pozsony to Bratislava in 1919; for a list of older names see ]
Braunschweig
Braunschweig (German), Brunswick (French, English) Brunvik (Slovenija)
Břeclav
Břeclav (Czech), Lundenburg (German)
Bremen
Bréma (Hungarian), Brema (Italian, Polish, Spanish), Brême (French), Bremen (Afrikaans, Croatian, Danish, Estonian, Frisian, German, Portuguese, Norwegian, Romanian, Swedish), Brėmenas (Lithuanian), Brémy (Czech, Slovak), Brimarborg (Icelandic), Vrémi (Greek)
Bremerhaven
Bremerhaven (German), Brémský Přístav (Czech)
Brest (Belarus)
Brasta (Lithuanian), Brest-Litovsk (former English and Russian name), Brześć Litewski (Polish), Brześć nad Bugiem (Polish 1918-1939); Lietuvos Brasta (former Lithuanian name); Brisk - בריסק (Yiddish)
Bristol
Briostó (Irish), Caerodor (Welsh)
Brno
Brno (Czech), Brünn (German, Hungarian)
Brody
Brody (Polish, Russian, Ukrainian; spelled Броды in Russian and Броди in Ukrainian), Brod - בראָד (Yiddish)
Bruges
Briž (Macedonian, Serbian), Bruges (French, Portuguese), Brugge (Dutch), Brügge (German), Bruggia (old Italian), Bruggy (Slovak), Brugia (Polish), Brugy (Czech), Brujas (Spanish), Brygge (Finnish), وبروج (Arab)
Bruntál
Bruntal (Polish), Bruntál (Czech), Freudenthal (German)
Brunswick
Braunschweig (German, Slovene, variant in English), Braunšvajg (Serbian), Brunšvik (Czech), Brunsvique (Portuguese), Brunswick (French, Italian, Spanish), Brunswijk (Dutch), Brunszwik (Polish)
Brussels
An Bhruiséil (Irish), Bréissel (Luxembourgish), Brisel (Macedonian, Serbian), Brisele (Latvian), Brisl - בריסל (Yiddish), Briuselis (Lithuanian), Brüksel (Turkish), Bruksela (Polish), Brūksil (Arabic), Brusel (Czech, Slovak), Brusela (Basque), Bruselas (Spanish), Bruselles (Catalan), Brussel (Dutch, Norwegian), Brüssel (German), Brusselle (Italian [obs.]), Brüsszel (Hungarian), Bruxelas (Portuguese), Bruxelles (Danish, French, Italian, Romanian), Bryssel (Danish, Finnish, Swedish), Bryuksel (Bulgarian), Bryussel (Russian, Ukrainian), Vrixéles - Βρυξέλλες (Greek), Brussele (Walloon)
Brzesko
Brzesko (Polish), Brigl - בריגל (Yiddish)
Buchach
Buchach - Бучач (Ukrainian), Buczacz (Polish), Betshotsh - בעטשאָטש (Yiddish)
Bucharest
Boekarest (Dutch), Búcairist (Irish), Bucarest (French, Italian, Spanish), Bucareste (Portuguese), Bucureşti (Romanian), Bukarest (Danish, Finnish, German, Hungarian, Swedish), Bukareštas (Lithuanian), Bukareste (Latvian), Bukareszt (Polish), Bukharest (Russian, Ukrainian), Bükreş (Turkish), Bukurešt (Bulgarian, Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian), Bukurešť (Czech, Slovak), Būqārist (Arabic), Voukourésti (Greek)
Buda (now part of Budapest)
Buda (Italian, Hungarian, Portuguese), Budín (Czech), Budin (Turkish), Ofen (German)
Budapest
Boedapest (Dutch), Būdābist (Arabic), Búdaipeist (Irish), Budapest (Italian, German, Hungarian), Budapešt (Russian, Ukrainian), Budapešť (Czech, Slovak), Budapešta (Bulgarian), Budapesta (Romanian), Budapeštas (Lithuanian), Budapeste (Portuguese), Budapeşte (Turkish), Budapeszt (Polish), Budimpešta (Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian), Voudhapésti (Greek)
Budweis
Budweis (German), Czeskie Budziejowice (Polish), České Budějovice (Czech, Slovak)
Buje
Buie d'Istria (Italian), Buje (Croatian)
Butrint
Butrint / Butrinti (Albanian), Butrinto (Italian)
Buzet
Buzet (Croatian), Pinguente (Italian)
Bydgoszcz
Bromberg (German), Bydgostia (Latin), Bydgoszcz (Polish)
Bytom
Beuthen (German), Bytom (Polish)
Bytow
Betowo (Kashubian/Pomeranian), Bütow (German), Bytów (Polish)
C
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Cádiz
Cadice (Italian), Cádis (Portuguese), Cadix (French), Cádiz (Spanish), Gades (Ancient Greek), Gadir (Phoenician), Kadyks (Polish), Kadiz (Serbian), al-Qādis (Arabic)
Cagliari
Cagliari (Italian), Cŕller (Catalan), Casteddu (Sardinian), Kaljari (Serbian)
Cairo
Le Caire (French), Caireo (Irish), Caďro (Dutch), Cairo (Portuguese), El Cairo (Spanish), Il Cairo (Italian), Káhira (Czech), Kair (Polish), Kairas (Lithuanian), Kairo (Bulgarian, Croatian, Finnish, German, Norwegian, Slovene, Swedish), Kairó (Hungarian), Qahir - (Hebrew), al-Qāhirah (Arabic), Maşr (local dialect name)
Cambridge (England)
Caergrawnt (Welsh), Cantabrigia (Latin), Cantabrígia (Portuguese), Kembridžas (Lithuanian), Kembriĝo (Esperanto)
Canterbury
Caergaint (Welsh), Cantorbéry (French), Kantaraborg (Icelandic), Kantelberg (Dutch)
Carcassonne
Carcassona (Italian), Carcassonne (French)
Cardiff
Caerdydd (Welsh), Kārdifa (Latvian), Ovicubium (Vulgar Latin)
Carlsbad
Karlovi Vari (Bulgarian, Croatian), Karlovy Vary (Czech), Karlsbad (German, Swedish) Karlowe Wary (Polish)
Cartagena
Cartagena (Spanish), Cartagina (Romanian), Carthagčne (French), Carthago Nova (Latin),Kartagina (Polish), al-Qartājanna (Arabic)
Celje
Celeia (Latin), Celje (Slovene), Celle (German), Cille (Hungarian), Cilli (older English (1911 EB ), older German), Kelea (Celtic)
Cetinje
Cettigne (Italian), Cetinje (Serbian)
Chania
La Canée (French), Khaniá - Χανιά (Greek), La Canea (Italian, Spanish)
Charleroi
Karelskoning (Dutch), Charleroi (French), Châlerwč / Tchĺlerwč (Walloon)
Cheb
Cheb (Czech), Eger (German)
Chełmno
Chełmno (Polish), Culm (variant in German), Kulm (German)
Chemnitz
Chemnitz (German), Kamienica Saska (Polish, traditional, not used anymore), Saská Kamenice (Czech); Karl-Marx-Stadt (German 1953-1990)
Chernyakhovsk
Chernyakhovsk (Russian), Insterburg (German), Įsrutis (Lithuanian), Wystruc (Polish)
Chester
Caerllion-ar-Dyfrdwy often abbreviated to Caer (Welsh)
Chişinău
Chişinău (Moldovan/Romanian), Chisinau (Portuguese), Keshenev - קעשענעװ (Yiddish), Kischinew (German), Kishinjov - Кишинёв (Russian), Kīšīnāw (Arabic), Kišineu (Bulgarian), Kišiněv (Czech), Kišiniovas (Lithuanian), Kišinjev (Serbian), Kišiňov (Slovak), Kisinyov (Hungarian), Kiszyniów (Polish), Kyšyniv (Ukrainian)
Chorzów
Chorzów (Polish), Králova Huť (Czech)
Cieszyn
Cieszyn (Polish), Teschen (German), Těšín (Czech), Tešín (Slovak)
Cleves
Cléveris (Spanish), Clčves (French), Kleef (Dutch), Kleve (German)
Cluj
Claudiopolis (Latin), Cluj-Napoca (Romanian), Klausenburg (German), Kluž (Czech, Slovak), Kluż (Polish), Kolozsvár (Hungarian)
Coblenz
Coblença (Portuguese), Coblence (French), Coblenza (Italian, Spanish), Koblencja (Polish), Koblenz (German, Slovene)
Coburg
Cobourg (French), Coburg (German), Coburgo (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish)
Coimbra
Coimbra (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Coimbre (French), Conimbriga (Latin), Qulumriya (Arabic)
Cologne
Cologne (French), Colonia (Italian, Spanish), Colónia (Portuguese), Keln - Келн (Serbian), Keln - קעלן (Yiddish), Kelnas (Lithianian), Keulen (Dutch), Kjol'n (Russian, Ukrainian), Kolín nad Rýnem (Czech), Kolín nad Rýnom (Slovak), Kölle (Kölsch [local dialect]), Köln (Finnish, German, Hungarian, Icelandic, Romanian, Swedish, Turkish), Kolonía (Greek), Kolonia (Polish)
Constanţa
Constanţa (Romanian), Küstendji (old Turkish name), Konstanca (Polish)
Copenhagen
Cóbanhávan (Irish), Copenaghen (Italian), Copenhaga (Portuguese, Romanian), Copenhague (French, Spanish), Hafnia (Latin), Kaupmannahöfn (Icelandic), Kobenhaven (Slovene), Křbenhavn (Danish, Norwegian), Kūbinhāġin (Arabic), Kodaň (Czech, Slovak), Kööpenhamina (Finnish), Kopengagen (Bulgarian, Russian), Kopenhaagen (Estonian), Kopenhag (Turkish), Kopenhaga (Lithuanian, Polish), Kopenhagen (Croatian, Dutch, German), Kopenhāgena (Latvian), Köpenhamn (Swedish), Kopenkhági (Greek), Koppenhága (Hungarian)
Córdoba
Córdoba (Spanish), Cordoue (French), Cňrdova (Catalan), Cordova (Italian), Córdova (Portuguese), Kordoba (Slovene), Qurtubah (Arabic)
Corfu
Corcyra (Latin), Corfou (French), Corfů (Italian), Corfú (Spanish), Kérkira - Κέρκυρα (Greek), Korfu (Finnish, German, Hungarian, Polish, Slovak), Krf (Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian, Slovene)
Corinth
Corint (Catalan), Corinthe (French), Corinto (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Korint (Croatian, Czech, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene), Kórinta (Icelandic), Korintas (Lithuanian), Korinth (German), Korinthe (Dutch), Kórinthos - Κόρινθος (Greek), Korintti (Finnish), Korynt (Polish)
Cork
Corc (Welsh), Corcaigh (Irish)
Corunna
La Corogne (French), A Coruńa (Galician), La Coruńa (Spanish), Corunha (Portuguese)
Cottbus
Chociebuż (Polish), Chóśebuz (Sorbian), Chotěbuz (Czech)
Cracow
Cracovia (Italian, Spanish, Romanian), Cracóvia (Portuguese), Cracovie (French), Kroke - קראָקע (Yiddish), Kraká (Icelandic), Krakau (Dutch, German), Krakiv (Ukrainian), Krakkó (Hungarian), Krakov (Croatian, Czech, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Turkish), Krakova (Finnish), Krakovía - Κρακοβία (Greek), Krakovo (Esperanto), Kraków (Polish), Krākūf (Arabic), Krokuva (Lithuanian)
Crécy
Crécy-en-Ponthieu (French), Kresčak (Czech)
D
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Daugavpils
Daugavpils (Latvian), Daugpilis (Lithuanian), Denenburg - דענענבורג (Yiddish), Dünaburg (German), Двинcк / Dvinsk (Russian), Dyneburg or Dźwińsk (Polish)
Debrecen
Debrecen (Hungarian), Debrecín (Czech), Debreţin (Romanian), Debreczyn (Polish)
Den Bosch
Bois-le-Duc (French), Bolduque (Spanish), Boscoducale (Italian [obs.]), Den Bos (Frisian), Den Bosch / 's-Hertogenbosch (Dutch), Herzogenbusch (German)
Dijon
Digione (Italian), Dijon (French), Diviodunum (Latin)
Dillingen
Dilinga (Spanish), Dillingen (German)
Donetsk
Doneţk (Romanian), Donetsk (Russian), Donetskas (Lithuanian), Donezk (German), Donieck (Polish), Donjeck (Serbian); Stalino (former name), Yuzovka (former name)
Dover
Douvres (French), Doveris (Lithuanian), Duvra (Latvian)
Drachhausen
Drachhausen (German), Hochoza (Lower Sorbian)
Dresden
Drážďany (Czech, Slovak), Dresda (Italian, Portuguese, Romanian), Dresde (French, Spanish), Drésdi (Greek), Drezda (Hungarian), Drezdenas (Lithuanian), Drezno (Polish), Drježdźany (Lower Sorbian)
Drohobycz
Drobitsh - דראָביטש (Yiddish), Drogobych (Russian), Drohobych (Ukrainian), Drohobycz (German, Polish)
Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik (Croatian, Serbian), Dubrovnikas (Lithuanian), Ragusa (Italian), Raguse (old French), Dubrownik (Polish)
Dublin
Baile Átha Cliath (Irish), Dubh Linn (archaic Irish variant), Dablin (Arabic, Serbian), Dhuvlíno - Δουβλίνο (Greek), Dublim (Portuguese), Dublín (Spanish), Dublinas (Lithuanian), Dublino (Italian), Dulenn (Breton), Dulyn (Welsh), Dyflinni (Icelandic)
Dunkirk
Dhunkérki - Δουγκέρκη (Greek), Duinkerken (Dutch), Dunkerque (French), Dunkierka (Polish), Dünkirchen (German), Dunquerque (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish)
Durrës
Drač (Croatian, Czech, Serbian), Durazzo (Italian), Durrës / Durrësi (Albanian)
Düsseldorf
Diuseldorfas (Lithuanian), Dizeldorf (Macedonian), Düsseldorf (German), Dusseldórfia (Portuguese), Dusseldorp (Dutch), Duesseldorf (Walloon)
Dushanbe
Doesjanbe (Dutch), Douchanbé (French), Dušanbe (Finnish, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Tajik), Dušanbė (Lithuanian), Duşanbe (Romanian, Turkish), Dūšānbī (Arabic), Duschanbe (German), Dusjanbe (Swedish), Duszanbe (Polish); Hissar (former name)
E
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Edinburgh
Caeredin (Welsh), Dún Éideann (Irish), Důn Čideann (Scots Gaelic), Edhimvúrgho - Εδιμβούργο (Greek), Edinborg (Icelandic), Edimbourg (French), Edimburgo (Italian, Portuguese), Edinburg (German [rare]), Edinburga (Latvian), Edinburgas (Lithuanian), Edinburk (Czech), Edynburg (Polish)
Eger
Eger (Hungarian), Eğri (Turkish), Erlau (German), Jager (Czech), Jáger (Slovak), Jagier (Polish)
Eisenhüttenstadt
Eisenhüttenstadt (German), Żelazowa Huta (Polish), Stalinstadt (former German name)
Elbląg
Elbiąg (local Polish dialect), Elbląg (Polish), Elbing (German), Ilfing or Truso (Old Prussian)
Ełk
Ełk (Polish), Lyck (German)
Elsinore
Elseneur (French), Elsinor (Spanish), Elsinore (Italian), Helsingør (Danish), Helsingör (Finnish, German, Swedish)
Emmerich
Emmerich (German), Emmerik (Dutch)
Erlangen
Erlangen (German), Erlanky (Czech)
Esztergom
Esztergom (Hungarian), Gran (German), Ostřihom (Czech), Ostrihom (Slovak), Ostrzyhom (Polish), Estergon (Turkish)
Eupen
Eupen (German, French, Dutch), Néau, Neyow, Naowe, Naouwe (Walloon)
F
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Flensburg
Flensborch (Low Saxon), Flensborg (Danish), Flensburg (German)
Florence
Firenca (Croatian, Serbian), Firenze (Finnish, Hungarian, Italian), Flórans (Irish), Floransa (Turkish), Florença (Portuguese), Florčncia (Catalan), Florencia (Slovak, Spanish), Florencie (Czech), Florencija (Lithuanian), Florencja (Polish), Florens (Swedish), Florenţa (Romanian), Florenz (German),Florence (French), Florance (Walloon)
Flushing
Flesinga (Spanish), Flessinga (Italian), Flessingue (French), Vlissingen (Dutch)
Fort Augustus
Cille Chumein (Scots Gaelic)
Frankfurt
Francfort (Catalan), Fráncfort del Meno (Spanish), Francfort-sur-le-Main (French), Francoforte sobre o Meno (Portuguese), Francoforte sul Meno (Italian), Frankfurt am Main (German), Frankfurtas prie Maino (Lithuanian), Frankfúrti - Φραγκφούρτη (Greek), Frankfurt nad Menem (Polish), Frankfurt nad Mohanem (Czech), Frankfurt nad Mohanom (Slovak), Frankfurt pe Main (Romanian)
Frankfurt (East Germany)
Fráncfort del Oder (Spanish), Francfort-sur-l'Oder (French), Francoforte sobre o Oder (Portuguese), Francoforte sull'Oder (Italian), Frankfurt an der Oder (German), Frankfurtas prie Oderio (Lithuanian), Frankfurt nad Odrą (Polish), Frankfurt nad Odrou (Slovak, Czech), Frankfurt pe Oder (Romanian)
Freiburg
Freiburg im Breisgau (German), Fribourg-en-Brisgau (French), Friburgo di Brisgovia (Italian)
Freising
Brižinje/Brižine (Slovene), Freising (German), Frisinga (Italian, Spanish), Frisingue (French)
Fribourg
Freiburg im Üechtland (German), Fribourg (French), Friburg (Romansh), Friburgo (Italian, Portuguese)
Frombork
Frauenburg (German), Frombork (Polish)
G
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Gallipoli
Galipolis (Lithuanian), Galipolje (Croatian, Serbian), Gallipoli (Italian), Gelibolu (Turkish), Kalípolis - Καλλίπολις (Greek)
Galway
Gaillimh (Irish)
Gdańsk
Dants - דאַנץ (Yiddish), Danzica (Italian), Danzig (German), Gdaňsk (Czech), Gdańsk (Polish), Gdanskas (Lithuanian), Gduńsk (Kashubian), Gedania (Latin)
Gdynia
Gdingen (German), Gdiniô (Kashubian/Pomeranian), Gdyně (Czech), Gdynė (Lithuanian), Gdynia (Polish), Gotenhafen (German 1939-1945)
Geneva
Cenevre (Turkish), Genebra (Portuguese), Geneve / Genčve (Dutch), Geneve (Finnish), Genčve (French), Genevra (Romansh), Genewa (Polish), Genf (German, Hungarian), An Ghinéiv (Irish), Ginebra (Catalan, Spanish), Ginevra (Italian), Jinīf (Arabic), Yenévi - Γενέβη (Greek), Ženeva (Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Lithuanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Ukrainian), Djeneve (Walloon)
Genoa
Cenova (Turkish), Đenova (Serbian), Gęnes (French), Gčnova (Catalan), Genova (Finnish, Italian, Romanian), Génova / Gęnova (Portuguese), Génova (Spanish), Genua (Dutch, German, Latin, Polish), Genuja (Lithuanian), Janov (Czech, Slovak), Zena (Genoese)
Ghent
Gand (French), Gandawa (Polish), Gante (Spanish), Gent (Dutch/Flemish, Finnish, German), Guanto (old Italian)
Gibraltar
Cebelitarık (Turkish), Gibilterra (Italian), Jabal-Tarīq (Arabic), Gibraltar (Spanish), Gibraltaras (Lithuanian)
Girona
Gerona (Spanish), Girona (Catalan)
Gjirokastër
Argirocastro (Italian), Aryirókastron (Greek), Gjirokastër / Gjirokastra (Albanian), Ergiri (Turkish)
Glarus
Glaris (French), Glarona (Italian), Glaruna (Romansh), Glarus (German)
Glasgow
Glaschú (Irish), Glaschů (Scots Gaelic)
Gliwice
Gleiwitz (German), Gliwice (Polish)
Gmünd
Cmunt (Czech), Gmünd (German)
Gorizia
Gorica (Slovene), Gorizia (Italian), Görz (German)
Görlitz
Görlitz (German), Zgorzelec (Polish), Zhořelec (Czech)
Gothenburg
Gautaborg (Icelandic), Gioteburgas (Lithuanian), Goeteborg (Polish), Göteborg (Finnish, German, Swedish), Göteburg (Turkish), Gotemburgo (Portuguese, Spanish), Gotenburg (Dutch, German [obs.])
Göttingen
Getynga (Polish), Getynky (Czech), Gœttingue (French), Gotinga (Spanish, Portuguese), Gottinga (Italian)
Gramzow
Gramzow (German), Grębowo (Polish)
Granada
al-Ġarnāda (Arabic), Granada (Italian, Spanish, Lithuanian), Grenade (French)
Graz
Gradec (Slovene), Graz (German), Grodziec (Polish), Štýrský Hradec (Czech)
Greifswald
Greifswald (German), Gryfia (Polish)
Grodno
Gardinas (Lithuanian), Grodno (Polish, Russian), Grodne - גראָדנע (Yiddish), Hrodna (Belarusian), Hrodno (Ukrainian)
Groningen
Grins (Frisian), Groninga (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Groningen (Dutch, German), Groningue (French), Grönnen / Grunnen / Grunn'n (Gronings), Groot Loug or Stad (local nicknames)
Grozny
Djovkhar Ghaala (Chechen), Džochargala (alternative Lithuanian name), Groznas (Lithuanian), Groznîi (Romanian), Groznyj - Грозный (Russian)
Grudziądz
Graudenz (German), Grudziądz (Polish)
Günzburg
Günzburg (German), Gunzburgo (Spanish)
Gusev
Gabin (Polish), Gumbinė (Lithuanian), Gumbinnen (German), Gusev - Гусев (Russian)
Győr
Győr (Hungarian), Raab (German), Ráb (Czech)
H
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Haderslev
Hadersleben (German), Haderslev (Danish)
Hamburg
Amburgo (Italian), Amvúrgho - Αμβούργο (Greek), Gamburg - Гамбург (Russian), Hamborg (Danish, Swedish), Hambourg (French), Hamburch (Frisian, Low Saxon), Hambūrġ (Arabic), Hamburg (Afrikaans, Croatian, Danish, Estonian, German, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian), Hamburgas (Lithuanian), Hamburgo (Portuguese, Spanish), Hamburk (Czech), Hampuri (Finnish)
Hämeenlinna
Hämeenlinna (Finnish), Tavastehus (Swedish)
Hamelin
Hamelen (Dutch), Hamelin (French, Italian, Portuguese), Hamelín (Spanish), Hameln (German)
Hanau
Hanau (German), Hanava (Czech)
Hanover
Anóvero - Ανόβερο (Greek), Ganover - Гановер (Russian), Hannover (Dutch, Finnish, German, Italian), Hanôver (Portuguese), Hanóver (Spanish), Hanoveris (Lithuanian), Hanovra (Romanian), Hanovre (French), Hanower (Polish), Hanôve (Walloon)
Hasselt
Hasselt (Dutch, French), Hasse / Hasque / Hassčl (Walloon),
Heligoland
Helgoland (German)
Helsinki
Elsínki (Greek), Helsingfors (Danish, Swedish), Helsingi (Estonian), Hel'sinki (Bulgarian, Russian, Ukrainian), Helsinki (Finnish, Italian, Polish), Helsinkis (Lithuanian), Helsinky (Czech), Helsinque (Brazilian Portuguese), Helsínquia (Portuguese), Helsset (North Sami), Hilsīnkī (Arabic)
Heraklion
Candia (Italian), Candie (old French), Héraklion (French), Iraklion (Greek, Polish), Kandiye (Turkish)
's Hertogenbosch
's Hertogenbosch (Dutch), Bois-le-Duc (French), Boscoducale (Italian)
Homyel'
Gomel' (Russian), Homl - האָמל (Yiddish), Homyel' (Belarusian), Homel (Polish)
Hoyerswerda
Hoyerswerda (German), Wojerecy (Sorbian)
Huy
Huy (French), Hoei (Dutch), Hu (Walloon)
I
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Iaşi
Iaşi (Romanian), Jassy (German, also older English, Polish), Iassy (old French name), Yaş (Turkish),
Iraklion
Former names: Cŕndia (Catalan), Candia (Italian, Spanish)
Innsbruck
Innsbruck (German), Inomost (Old Slovene), Inomostí / Inšpruk (Czech), Insbrukas (Lithuanian)
Ioannina
Giannina (Italian), Ianina (Aromanian), Ioannina (Finnish), Ioánnina - Ιωάννινα (Greek), Janinë / Janina (Albanian), Yánena - Γιάννενα / Yánina - Γιάννινα (Greek variants), Yanya (Turkish)
Istanbul
Estambul (Spanish), Istambul (Croatian, Italian, Portuguese, Serbian), Istanboel (Dutch), Istanbūl (Arabic), Istanbuł / Stambuł (Polish), Istanbul (Romanian), İstanbul (Turkish), Isztambul (Hungarian), Konstantinúpoli (Greek), Mikligarđur (Icelandic), Stamboll (Albanian), Stamboul (French), Stambul (Russian, Ukrainian), Stambula (Latvian), Stambulas (Lithuanian) Former names: Constantinoble (Catalan), Bizánc / Konstantinápoly (Hungarian), Bizanc / Carigrad / Konstantinopel (Slovene), Bizâncio / Constantinopla (Portuguese), Bizancjum / Carogród / Konstantynopol (Polish), Bizant / Carigrad / Konstantinopol (Croatian, Serbian), Bizanţ / Constantinopol (e ) / Stambul / Ţarigrad (Romanian), Bisanzio / Costantinopoli (Italian), Bysants / Konstantinopel (Norwegian), Byzantion (Greek), Byzantium / Constantinople (English), Byzantium / Constantinopolis (Latin), Carigrad (Croatian, Serbian), Cařihrad / Konstantinopol (Czech), Carihrad / Konštantínopol (Slovak), Constantinopel (Dutch), Konstantinopel (German), Konstantinopoli (Finnish), Miklagard (Old Norse), Qushta - קושטא (Hebrew), Tsarigrad (Russian); Estambul , Konstantinopyla , Koshta , Koshtandina , Kospoli , Kostan (other variants during Ottoman period)
Izmir
Esmirna (Catalan, Portuguese, Spanish), İzmir (Turkish), Smirna (Serbian, old Romanian name), Smirne (Italian), Smirni (Greek), Smyrna (variant in English)
J
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Jakobstad
Jakobstad (Swedish), Pietarsaari (Finnish)
Jarosław
Jaroslau (German), Jarosław (Polish), Yareslev - יאַרעסלעװ (Yiddish), Yaroslav (Russian)
Jena
Iéna (French), Iena (Romanian), Jena (German)
Jihlava
Iglau (German), Jihlava (Czech)
K
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Kaliningrad
Kaliningrad - Кaлинингpaд (Russian), Kalingrad (Polish), Kaliningrado (Spanish), Kalinjingrad (Croatian), Kaljinjingrad (Serbian), Karaliaučius (Lithuanian), Kenigsberg קעניגסבערג (Yiddish), Keunigsbarg (Low Saxon), Koningsbergen (Dutch), Königsberg (German), Královec (Czech), Królewiec (former Polish name)
Kamenz
Kamenz (German), Kamjenc (Upper Sorbian)
Kamyaniets Podilskiy
Kamenets קאַמענעץ (Yiddish), Kamenets-Podol'skiy (Russian), Kamieniec Podolski (Polish), Kam"yanets'-Podil's'kyy - Кaм'янeць-Пoдiльcький (Ukrainian)
Kandalaksha
Kandalaksha - Кaндaлaкшa (Russian), Kannanlahti / Kantalahti (Finnish)
Kartuzy
Karthaus (German), Kartuzy (Polish)
Katowice
Katovicai (Lithuanian), Katovice (Czech, Serbian), Katoviçe (Turkish), Katowice (Polish), Kattowitz (German); Stalinogród (Polish 1953-1956)
Kaunas
Kauen (German), Kaunas (Lithuanian), Kovne קאָװנע (Yiddish), Kovno (Czech), Kovno - Кoвнo (Russian), Kowno (Polish)
Kem'
Kem' - Кeмь (Russian), Kemi or Vienan Kemi (Finnish)
Kemi
Giepma (Northern Sami)
Kętrzyn
Kętrzyn (Polish), Rastenburg (German)
Kharkov
Char'kiv - Xapькiв (Ukrainian), Charkov (Czech, Slovak), Charkovas (Lithuanian), Charków (Polish), Harkov (Romanian), Har'kov - Xapькoв (Russian), Harkova (Finnish), Karkov (Turkish)
Kiel
Kiel (German), Kilonia (Polish), Kylis (Lithuanian), Quília (Portuguese)
Kielce
Kelts קעלץ (Yiddish), Kel'tsy - Кeльцы (Russian), Kielce (Polish)
Kiev
Kćnugarđur (Icelandic), Kiëv (Dutch), Kiev (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish) Kiev קיִעװ (Yiddish), Kiev - Киев (Russian), Kíevo (Greek), Kiew (German), Kijev (Croatian, Hungarian, Serbian, Slovene), Kijeva (Latvian), Kijevas (Lithuanian), Kijów (Polish), Kiova (Finnish), Kīyif (Arabic), Kyďv - Київ (Ukrainian), Kyjev (Czech, Slovak); Qiyov - קיוב (Hebrew)
Kirovgrad
formerly Yelizavetgrad
Kilkenny
Cill Chainnigh (Irish)
Kiruna
Giron (Sami), Kiiruna (Finnish)
Klagenfurt
Celovec (Czech, Slovene), Klagenfurt (German), Želanec (alternative Czech name)
Klaipeda
Klaipeda (Finnish), Klaipėda (Lithuanian), Kłajpeda (Polish), Memel (German)
Kobarid
Caporetto (Italian), Kobarid (Slovene)
Kolkwitz
Gołkojce (Lower Sorbian), Kolkwitz (Niederlausitz) (German)
Kolomyya
Kilemey קילעמײ (Yiddish), Kolomea (German), Kołomyja (Polish), Kolomyja - Кoлoмия (Ukrainian)
Kondopoga
Kondopoga - Кoндoпoгa (Russian), Kontiolahti (Finnish)
Konstanz
Constance (French, variant in English), Constância (Portuguese), Costanza (Italian), Konstancja (Polish), Köstence (Turkish), Kostnice (Czech)
Köpenick
Köpenick (German), Kopník (Czech)
Koper
Capodistria (Italian), Kopar (Croatian, Serbian), Koper (Slovene)
Korçë
Korçë / Korça (Albanian), Koritsa (Greek)
Kortrijk
Kortrijk (Dutch), Courtrai (French)
Košice
Kaschau (German), Kassa (Hungarian), Košice (Serbian, Slovak), Koszyce (Polish)
Kosovo Polje
Amselfeld (German), Champ des merles (French), Fushe Koseve (Albanian), Kosovo Polje (Serbian), Kosowe Pole (Polish), Rigómező (Hungarian)
Kotor
Cattaro (Italian), Kotor (Croatian, Serbian)
Kovel
Kovel' - Кoвeль (Russian, Ukrainian), Kowel (Polish), Kovl קאָװל (Yiddish)
Krems
Krems (German), Kremže / Křemže (Czech)
Kristianstad
Kristianstad (Swedish), Kristianstadas (Lithuanian)
Kristinestad
Christinae Stadh (older Swedish name), Kristiinankaupunki (Finnish), Kristingrad (Serbian)
Krnov
Carnovia (Latin), Jägerndorf (German), Karniów (older Polish name), Krnov (Czech), Krnów (Polish)
Kudowa Zdrój
Chudoba (Czech), Kudowa-Zdrój (Polish)
Kwidzyn
Kwidzyn (Polish), Marienwerder (German)
Kyle of Lochalsh
Caol Loch Ailse (Scots Gaelic)
L
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Labin
Albona (Italian), Labin (Croatian)
Lahti
Lahti (Finnish, Slovene), Lahtis (Swedish)
Lappeenranta
Lappeenranta (Finnish), Villmanstrand (Swedish)
Lausanne
Lausanne (French), Lausana (Spanish), Losanna (Italian), Lozan (Turkish), Lozana (Serbian), Lozáni (Greek), Lozanna (Polish), Luzana (Slovene)
Leeuwarden
Leeuwarden (Dutch), Ljouwert (Frisian)
Leghorn
Liorna (Spanish), Livorno (Italian, Finnish, German, Romanian), Livourne (French)
Leicester
Caerlyr (Welsh), Ratae (Latin), Leicestria (Church Latin)
Leiden
Leida (Italian), Leiden (Dutch, Slovene), Lejda (Polish), Leyde (French), Leyden (variant in English)
Leipzig
Lajpcig (Serbian), Leipcigas (Lithuanian), Leipzig (French, German, Slovene), Lipcse (Hungarian), Lipsca (old Romanian), Lipsía - Λειψία (Greek), Lipsia (Italian), Lípsia (Portuguese), Lipsk (Lower Sorbian, Polish), Lipsko (Czech, Slovak)
Lębork
Lauenburg (German), Lębork (Polish)
Lezhë
Lezhë / Lezha (Albanian), Alessio (Italian)
Liege
Lîdje / Lîdge (Walloon), Liege (Finnish, Hungarian, Swedish, Turkish),Ličge (French, Romanian), Liége (former French), Liegi (Italian), Liegxo (Esperanto), Lieja (Catalan, Spanish), Liež (Serbian), Luik (Dutch), Lutych (Czech), Lüttich (German), Leodium (Latin), Λιέγης (Greek), Льеж (Russian), Лиеж (Bulgarian), ولييج (Arab), ליאז' (Hebrew)
Liepāja
Libau (German), Libava or Liyepaya (Russian) Libave - ליבאַװע (Yiddish), Liepāja (Latvian), Lipawa (Polish)
Lier
Lier (Dutch), Lierre (French)
Lille
Lilla (Catalan, Italian), Lille (French), Rijsel (Dutch)
Limerick
Limeriko (Esperanto), Luimneach (Irish)
Linz
Linec (Czech), Linz (German, Slovene)
Lisbon
Liospóin (Irish), Lisabon (Czech, Slovak, Croatian, Serbian), Lisabona (Lithuanian, Romanian), Lisboa (Portuguese, Spanish), Lisbona (Italian), Lisbonne (French), Lisbono (Esperanto), Lišbūna (Arabic), Lissabon (Danish, Dutch, Finnish, German, Russian, Swedish), Lissavóna (Greek), Lisszabon (Hungarian), Lizbon (Turkish), Lizbona (Polish, Slovene), Uşbune (old Arabian)
Liverpool
Learpholl (Irish), Lerpwl (Welsh), Liverpūle (Latvian), Liverpulis (Lithuanian), Liverpulo (Esperanto), Llynlleifiad (former Welsh)
Ljubljana
Laibach (German), Liubliana (Portuguese, Spanish), Liublijana (Lithuanian), Liyūbliyānā (Arabic), Ljubljana (French, Slovene), Lubiana (Italian), Lublaň (Czech), Lublana (Polish), Ľubľana (Slovak), Lubyana (Turkish)
Lleida
Lerida (Italian), Lérida (French, Portuguese, Spanish), Lleida (Catalan)
Löbau
Löbau (German), Lubij (Upper Sorbian), Lubiniec (Polish)
London
Landan (Arabic), Llundain (Welsh), Londain (Irish), Londen (Dutch), Londhíno (Greek), Londinium (Latin), Londona (Latvian), Londonas (Lithuanian), Londono (Esperanto), Londra (Italian, Romanian, Turkish), Londres (Catalan, French, Portuguese, Spanish), Londyn (Polish), Londýn (Czech, Slovak), Lontoo (Finnish), Loundres (Cornish), Lundúnir (Icelandic), Lunnainn (Scots Gaelic)
Londonderry
Derio (Esperanto), Derry (official English name in Republic of Ireland; disputed usage in Northern Ireland), Doire (Irish)
Lourdes
Lourdes (French, Italian), Lurdy (Czech)
Louvain
Leuven (Dutch), Louvain (French), Lováin (Irish), Lovaina (Catalan, Portuguese, Spanish), Lovaň (Czech), Lovanio (Italian), Löwen (German), Lovin (Walloon)
Lübben
Lübben (German), Lubin (Lower Sorbian, Polish)
Lübbenau
Lübbenau (German), Lubnjow (Lower Sorbian)
Lübeck
Liubekas (Lithuanian), Lubecca (Italian), Lübeck (French, German), Lubek (Czech), Lubeka (Polish), Lyypekki (Finnish)
Lucca
Lucca (Italian), Lucques (French), Lukka (Polish)
Lucerne
Liucerna (Lithuanian), Lucern (Czech, Slovene), Lucerna (Italian, Romansh, Polish, Romanian, Spanish), Lucerne (French), Lukérni (Greek), Luzern (German, Finnish, Serbian, Turkish), Luzerna (Catalan)
Luleĺ
Luleĺ (Swedish), Lulėja (Lithuanian), Luleo (Serbian), Luulaja (Finnish)
Lüneburg
Lüneburch (Low Saxon), Lüneburg (German), Luneburgo (Italian), Lunenburg (variant in English)
Luxembourg
Lëtzebuerg (Luxembourgish), Liuksemburgas (Lithuanian), Ljuksemburg (Bulgarian, Russian), Ljuksemburh (Ukrainian), Lucemburk (Czech), Lucsamburg (Irish), Luksemboarch (Frisian), Luksemburg (Croatian, Estonian, Macedonian, Polish, Serbian, Slovene), Lüksemburg (Turkish), Luksemburga (Latvian), Luksemburgio (Esperanto), Lussemburgo (Italian), Lussimbork (Walloon), Lúxemborg (Icelandic), Luxemborg / Luxembourg / Luxemburg (Danish), Luxembourg (Afrikaans, French), Luxemburg (Basque variant, Catalan, Dutch, English variant, Finnish, German, Hungarian, Romanian, Swedish), Luxemburgia (Latin variant), Luxemburgo (Portuguese, Spanish), Luxemburgum (Latin), Luxembursko (Slovak), Luxemvúrgho - Λουξεμβούργο (Greek), Luxenburgo (Basque), Lwcsembwrg (Welsh)
L'viv
Ilyvó (Hungarian), Lavov (Croatian), Lemberg (German), Lemberig - לעמבעריג (Yiddish), Léopol (French), Leopoli (Italian), Leopolis (Latin), Lióv (Romanian), L'viv - Львів (Ukrainian), Lvov (Finnish, Slovene), L'vov - Львов (Russian), Ľvov (Slovak), Lvovas (Lithuanian), Lwów (Polish)
Lyon
Liăo (Portuguese), Lijonas (Lithuanian), Lió (Catalan), Lione (Italian), Liono (Esperanto), Liyon (Serbian), Lugdunum or Lugudunum (Latin), Lyon (French, German, Slovene), Lyón (Spanish), Lyons (traditional English name)
M
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Maastricht
Maastricht (Dutch, French), Maestricht (former French, Flemisch), Mastrichtas (Lithuanian), Mastrique (Spanish), Mestreech (local Limburger dialect), Traiectum ad Mosam or Traiectum superius (Latin), Mĺstrek / Li Trek (Walloon)
Madrid
Madhríti (Greek), Madri (Portuguese), Madrid (French, Italian, Spanish), Madridas (Lithuanian), Madrido (Esperanto), Madryt (Polish), Maidrid (Irish), Mecrit (Arabic)
Mahilyow
Mahilyow (Belarusian), Mogilev (Russian), Mogilew or Mohylew (Polish), Molev - מאָלעװ (Yiddish)
Mainz
Määnz (local dialect), Magonza (Italian), Maguncia (Spanish), Mainz (German), Majnc (Serbian), Mayence (French), Mogúncia (Portuguese), Moguncja (Polish), Moguntiacum (Latin), Mohuč (Czech, Slovak), Meenz (former local dialect)
Malbork
Malbork (Polish), Marienburg (German)
Manchester
Manceinion (Welsh), Mančestra (Latvian), Manĉestro (Esperanto), Mančesteris (Lithuanian), Manchain (Irish), Mancunium (Latin)
Monschau
Monschau (German), Montjoie (French)
Mantua
Mantoue (French), Mantova (Italian, Finnish, Czech, Slovak), Mantua (Latin), Mântua (Portuguese)
Maribor
Marburg (German), Maribor (Slovene), Morpurgo (old Italian)
Mariehamn
Maarianhamina (Finnish), Mariehamn (Swedish)
Marktredwitz
Marktredwitz (German), Ředvice (Czech)
Marseilles
Marseille (French), Marsel' (Russian), Marselha (Portuguese), Marselj (Serbian), Marseljo (Esperanto), Marsella (Spanish), Marsiglia (Italian), Marsilha (Provençal), Marsilia (Romanian), Marsīliyā (Arabic), Marsilya (Turkish), Marsylia (Polish), Massalía (Greek), Marselis (Lithuanian)
Mechelen
Malinas (Spanish), Malines (Catalan, French), Mechelen (Dutch), Mecheln (German), Mechlin (older English name)
Meissen
Meißen (German), Míšeň (Czech), Misnia (Italian), Miśnia (Polish)
Melk
Medlík (Czech), Melk (German), Mölk (older German name)
Messina
Messina (Italian), Messine (French), Mesyna (Polish), Missina (Sicilian)
Metz
Divodurum (Latin), Mec - Мец (Bulgarian, Serbian, Russian), Mety (Czech), Metz (French, German, Italian, Romanian)
Międzybórz
Mezbizh - מעזביזש (Yiddish), Międzybórz (Łódźkie) (Polish)
Miercurea-Ciuc
Csíkszereda (Hungarian), Miercurea-Ciuc (Romanian), Szeklerburg (German)
Mikkeli
Mikkeli (Finnish), St. Michel (Swedish)
Mikulov
Mikulov (Czech), Nikolsburg (German)
Milan
Mailand (German), Mediolan (Polish), Mediólana (former Greek name), Mediolānum (Latin), Milŕ (Catalan), Milaan (Dutch), Milán (Czech, Spanish), Milano (Croatian, Esperanto, Finnish, Italian, Romanian, Serbian, Turkish), Miláno (Greek, Slovak), Milánó (Hungarian), Mīlānū (Arabic), Milăo (Portuguese), Milanas (Lithuanian)
Minsk
Minsk - Мінск or Myensk - Менск (Belarusian), Minsk - Минск (Russian), Minsk - מינסק (Yiddish), Mińsk (Polish), Mins'k - Мінськ (Ukrainian), Minsko (Esperanto), Minszk (Hungarian), Minskas (Lithuanian)
Miskolc
Miskolc (Hungarian), Miškovec (Czech, Slovak), Miszkolc (Polish)
Monaco
Monaco (Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Swedish, Welsh), Monacó (Irish), Mónaco (Portuguese, Spanish), Monakas (Lithuanian), Monako (Basque, Esperanto, Latvian, Polish, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish), Monakó - Μονακό (Greek), Mónakó (Icelandic), Monoecus (Latin), Munegu (Monegasque)
Mons
Bergen (Dutch), Berĥeno (Esperanto), Mons (French), Mont (Walloon)
Montbéliard
Mömpelgard (German), Montbéliard (French)
Moscow
Maskava (Latvian), Maskva (Belarusian), Mosca (Italian), Moscó (Irish), Moscou (French, Brazilian Portuguese), Moscova (Romanian), Moscovo (Portuguese), Moscú (Spanish), Moskau (German), Móskha (Greek), Moskou (Dutch), Moskova (Finnish, Turkish), Moskva (Bulgarian, Czech, Slovak, Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, Danish, Russian, Swedish, Ukrainian), Moskve - מאָסקװע (Yiddish), Moskvo (Esperanto), Moskwa (Polish), Moszkva (Hungarian), Mūskū (Arabic)
Mosonmagyaróvár
Mosonmagyaróvár (Hungarian), Wieselburg-Ungarisch Altenburg (German)
Mukacheve
Mukačevo (Czech, Slovak), Mukacheve - Мyкaчeвe (Ukrainian), Mukachevo - Мyкaчeвo (Russian), Mukachiv - Мyкaчiв (Ruthenian), Mukaczewo (Polish), Minkatsh - מינקאַטש (Yiddish), Munkács (Hungarian), Munkatsch (German)
Mulhouse
Milhüse or Milhüsa (Alsatian), Mülhausen (German), Mulhouse (French), Mylhúzy (Czech), Miluza (Polish)
Munich
Minhen (Serbian), Minkhn - מינכן (Yiddish); Miunchenas (Lithuanian), Miyūnikh (Arabic), Mjunkhen (Bulgarian, Russian, Ukrainian), Mnichov (Czech), Mníchov (Slovak), Monachium (Polish), Monaco di Baviera (Italian), Mónakho (Greek), München (Dutch, Finnish, German, Hungarian, Romanian, Low Saxon, Swedish), Munĥeno or Munkeno (Esperanto), Múnich (Spanish), Münih (Turkish), Munique (Portuguese), Műnik (Walloon)
Münster
Münster (German), Meuster (Walloon)
Murmansk
Moermansk (Dutch), Mourmansk (French), Murmansk - Мурманск (Russian), Murmansko (Esperanto), Muurmanni or Muurmanski (older Finnish names), Muurmansk (Finnish); Romanov-on-Murman (former name), Murmanskas (Lithuanian), Murmańsk (Polish)
N
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Namur
Namur (French), Namen (Dutch), Nameur (Walloon)
Nancy
Nancy (French), Nanzig (German)
Naples
Nābūlī (Arabic), Napels (Dutch), Nápoles (Portuguese, Spanish), Napoli (Italian, Finnish, Romanian, Turkish), Napolo (Esperanto), Nŕpols (Catalan), Nápoly (Hungarian), Napulj (Croatian, Serbian), Neapel (German), Neapolis (Lithuanian), Neapol (Czech, Polish, Slovak), Neapol' (Russian, Ukrainian), Neapole (old Romanian name), Neápoli (modern Greek), Neápolis (ancient Greek)
Narbonne
Narbo or Narbo Martius (Latin), Narbona (Italian, Spanish), Narbonne (French)
Neuchâtel
Neuchâtel (French), Neuenburg (German)
Newport (Monmouthshire)
Casnewydd (Welsh)
Newport (Pembrokeshire)
Trefdraeth (Welsh)
Nice
Niça (Catalan), Nicea (Polish), Níkea (Greek), Nis (Turkish), Nisa (Romanian), Niza (Spanish), Nizza (Italian, Finnish, German, Hungarian), Nica (Lithuanian)
Nicosia
Lefkoşe (Turkish), Lefkosía (Greek), Nicosia (Hungarian, Italian, Spanish), Nicósia (Portuguese), Nicosie (French), Nikosia / Lefkosia (Finnish), Nikosia (German), Nikosija (Russian, Ukrainian), Nikosio (Esperanto), Nikozija (Serbian), Nikozja (Polish), Nīqūsiyā (Arabic), Nikozija (Lithuanian)
Nijmegen
Nijmegen (Dutch), Nimega (Italian, Spanish), Nimčgue (French), Nimwegen (German, Local Dialect), Nîmegue (Walloon), Batavodurum, Noviomagum (Latin), Nimwege (Limburgs)
Nizhny Novgorod
Nijni-Novgorod (French, Romanian), Nischnij Nowgorod (German), Nizhni Novgorod (Finnish), Nižnij Novgorod - Нижний Новгород (Russian), Nižný Novgorod (Slovak), Nowogród (Polish); Gorky (former name 1932-1990), Niny Novgordas (Lithuanian)
Novi Sad
Neusatz (German), Novi Sad - Нови Сад (Serbian), Nový Sad (Slovak), Újvidék (Hungarian), Novi Sadas (Lithuanian)
Nowy Sącz
Neu-Sandez (German), Nowy Sącz (Polish), Sandz - סאַנדז (Yiddish)
Nuremberg
Neurenberg (Dutch), Niremvéryi - Νυρεμβέργη (Greek), Norimberg (Slovene), Norimberga (Italian), Norimberk (Czech), Nörnberg (Low Saxon), Norymberga (Polish), Núremberg (Spanish), Nuremberga (Portuguese), Nürnberg (Finnish, German, Hungarian), Niurnbergas (Lithuanian)
O
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Óbuda (now part of Budapest)
Altofen (German), Óbuda (Hungarian), Starý Budín (Czech), Buda (Polish)
Odessa
Ades - אַדעס (Yiddish), Hacıbey (Turkish), Odesa (Ukrainian), Odessa (Russian, Polish)
Oldenburg
Oldemburgo (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Oldenburg (German), Starogard (Polish, Serbian)
Olomouc
Olmütz (German), Olomóc or Holomóc (Czech - Hanakian dialect), Olomouc (Czech), Olomuncium (Latin), Ołomuniec (Polish)
Olsztyn
Allenstein (German), Olsztyn (Polish), Oltinas (Lithuanian)
Opava
Opava (Czech), Opavia (Latin), Opawa (Polish), Troppau (German)
Opole
Opole (Polish), Opolí (Czech), Oppeln (German)
Oporto
Burtuqāl (Arabic), Oporto (Italian, Spanish), Porto (Czech, Esperanto, French, German, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Serbian), Portas (Lithuanian)
Oradea
Gran Varadino (Italian), Großwardein (German), Magno-Varadinum (Latin variant), Nagyvárad (Hungarian), Oradea (Romanian, Polish), Varadinum (Latin), Varat (Turkish)
Oranienburg
Bocov (Czech), Bötzow (former German name), Oranienburg (German)
Oslo
Asloa (Latin), Oslo (Bahasa Indonesia, Danish, Dutch, Esperanto, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Polish, Romanian, Spanish, Swedish), Osló (Irish), Ósló (Icelandic), Ūslū (Arabic), Oslas (Lithuanian), Christiania (former Dano-Norwegian name 1624-1925), Kristiania (late version of former name)
Osnabrück
Osnabrück (German), Osnabrugge (Dutch), Osnabruque (Portuguese)
Ostend
Oostende (Dutch/Flemish), Ostenda (Italian, Polish), Ostende (Czech, French, German, Portuguese, Serbian), Ostendo (Esperanto), Ostendė (Lithuanian), Ostinde (Walloon)
Oświęcim
Auschwitz (German), Osvětim (Czech), Osvienčim (Slovak), Oświęcim (Polish)
Oulu
Oulu (Finnish, Polish), Uleĺborg (Swedish)
Oxford
Oksfordo (Esperanto), Oxonia (Latin), Rhydychen (Welsh), Oksfordas (Lithuanian), Oksford (Polish)
P
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Padua
Padoue (French), Padova (Italian, Finnish, Romanian, Croatian, Czech, Slovak), Pádua (Portuguese), Padwa (Polish)
Palermo
Palerme (French), Palermo (Italian, Finnish, Polish), Palermas (Lithuanian)
Pamplona
Banbalūna (Arabic), Iruńa (Basque), Pamplona (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Pampelune (French), Pampaluna / Lunapampa (Old Provençal), Pampeluna (Polish)
Paris
Bārīs (Arabic), Páras (Irish), Parigi (Italian), Pariis (Estonian), Pariisi (Finnish), Parijs (Dutch), París (Catalan, Spanish), Paris (French, Norwegian) Parísi (Greek), Pariso or Parizo (Esperanto), Pariž (Bulgarian, Russian), Pariz (Croatian), Pariz - Париз (Serbian), Pariz - פּאַריז (Yiddish), Paříž (Czech), Paríž (Slovak), Parīze (Latvian), Párizs (Hungarian), Paryż (Polish), Paryzh (Ukrainian), Paryžius (Lithuanian)
Parma
Parme (French), Parma (Italian, Latin, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish)
Pärnu
Parnawa (Polish), Pärnu (Estonian), Pernau (German), Piarnu (Lithuanian)
Passau
Batavia (Latin), Pasawa (Polish), Pasov (Czech), Passau (German), Passovia (Italian)
Pazin
Pisino (Italian), Pazin (Croatian)
Pécs
Pětikostelí (Czech), Pečuh (Croatian), Fünfkirchen (German), Päťkostolie (Slovak), Pecz (Polish)
Perpignan
Perpignan (French), Perpignano (Italian), Perpińán (Spanish), Perpinhăo (Portuguese), Perpinjan (Serbian), Perpinyŕ (Catalan)
Perugia
Pérouse (French), Perugia (Italian), Perusa (Spanish)
Petroskoy
Petrozavodsk (Russian), Petroskoi (Finnish), Äänislinna (old Finnish name), Petrozavodskas (Lithuanian)
Piacenza
Piacenza (Italian), Pjaćenca (Serbian), Plaisance (French), Plasencia (Spanish)
Piotrków Trybunalski
Petrikau (German), Petrikev - פּעטריקעװ (Yiddish), Petrokov (Russian), Piotrków Trybunalski (Polish)
Plauen
Plauen (German, Polish), Plavno (Czech)
Pleven
Pleven (Bulgarian), Plevna (Russian), Plevno (Czech), Plewen (Polish)
Plovdiv
Filippopoli (Italian), Philipopolis (Greek, former name), Plovdiv (Bulgarian), Płowdiw (Polish), Pulpudeva (Thracian, former name), Evmolpias (Thracian, former name), Trimontium (Roman, former name), Filibe (Turkish, former name), Paldin (Slav, former name)
Plymouth
Pleimuiden (Dutch), Plimuto (Esperanto)
Plzeň
Pilsen (German, Italian), Pilzno (Polish), Plzeň (Czech)
Podgorica
Titograd (former name), Ribnica (former name)
Pompeii
Pompei (Italian), Pompeia (Portuguese), Pompeji (German), Pompeya (Spanish), Pompeja (Serbian), Pompeje (Polish), Pompiia (Greek), Pompeiji (Finnish), Pompėja (Lithuanian), Pompeji, (Danish)
Porec
Parenzo (Italian), Poreč (Croatian)
Pori
Björneborg (Swedish), Pori (Finnish)
Portorož
Portorose (Italian), Portorož (Slovene)
Porvoo
Borgĺ (Swedish), Porvoo (Finnish)
Potsdam
Podstupim (Lower Sorbian), Postupim (Czech, Slovak), Potsdam (German, Italian), Poczdam (Polish), Potsdamas (Lithuanian)
Poznań
Posen (German), Posnania (Latin), Posnanie (French), Poyzn - פּױזן (Yiddish), Poznań (Polish), Poznanė (Lithuanian)
Prague
Birāġ (Arabic), Praha (Czech, Finnish, Norwegian, Slovak, Ukrainian, Lithuanian), Praag (Dutch), Prag (Croatian, Danish, German, Serbian, Swedish, Turkish), Prág (Irish), Prága (Greek, Hungarian), Praga (Bulgarian, Catalan, Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish), Prago (Esperanto), Prog - פּראָג (Yiddish)
Pravdinsk
Friedland (German), Pravdinsk (Russian), Romuva (Lithuanian)
Priozersk
Kexholm / Keksholm (Swedish), Käkisalmi (Finnish), Korela (alternative Finnish name)
Pristina
Prishtinë (Albanian), Priština - Приштина (Serbian), Priştina (Turkish), Prisztina (Polish), Pristino (Esperanto), Pritina (Lithuanian)
Pruszcz Gdański
Praust (German), Pruszcz Gdański (Polish)
Przemyśl
Peremyshl (Russian), Premisl - פּרעמיסל (Yiddish), Przemyśl (Polish)
Pskov
Pihkva (Estonian), Pihkova (Finnish), Psków (Polish), Pleskau (German), Pskovas (Lithuanian)
Pula
Pola (Italian), Pula (Croatian)
Puławy
Pilev - פּילעװ (Yiddish), Puławy (Polish)
Pyrzyce
Pyritz (German), Pyrzyce (Polish)
R
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Rădăuţi
Rădăuţi (Romanian), Radautz (German), Radevits - ראַדעװיץ (Yiddish), Radowce (Polish)
Radymno
Radymno (Polish), Redem - רעדעם (Yiddish)
Rauma
Rauma (Finnish), Raumo (Swedish)
Regensburg
Řezno (Czech), Ratisbona (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Ratisbonne (French), Ratyzbona (Polish), Ratisbon (English [obs.], Latin), Regensborg (Low Saxon), Regensburg (German)
Rheims
Reims (French), Remeš (Czech), Remso (Esperanto), Reimsas (Lithuanian)
Riga
Riga (Italian, Portuguese, Russian), Rīga (Latvian), Rīġā (Arabic), Rige - ריגע (Yiddish), Riha (Belarusian, Ukrainian), Riia (Estonian), Riika (Finnish), Ryga (Lithuanian, Polish)
Rijeka
Fiume (Italian, Hungarian), Rijeka (Croatian, Polish), St. Veit am Flaum (German)
Rivne
Rivne (Ukrainian), Rovne - ראָװנע (Yiddish), Rovno (Russian), Równe (Polish), Rowno (German)
Roman
Roman (Romanian), Románvásár (Hungarian), Romanvarasch (German)
Rome
Rhufain (Welsh), Rim (Bulgarian, Croatian, Serbian, Russian), Rím (Slovak), Řím (Czech), An Róimh (Irish), Rom (German), Rómi (Greek), Róma (Hungarian), Roma (Catalan, Italian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, Turkish), Romo (Esperanto), Rooma (Estonian, Finnish), Roym - רױם (Yiddish), Rūmiya (Arabic), Rym (Ukrainian), Rzym (Polish)
Roskilde
Hróarskelda (Icelandic), Roskilde (Danish)
Rostock
Rostock (German, Polish), Roztoky (Czech), Rostokas (Lithuanian)
Rouen
Rouen (French), Ruăo (Portuguese), Rúđuborg (Icelandic)
Rovaniemi
Roavenjarga (Sami), Rovaniemi (Finnish, Swedish), Rovaniemis (Lithuanian)
Rovinj
Rovigno (Italian), Rovinj (Croatian)
Rzeszów
Reichshof (German 1939-1945), Reyshe - רײשע (Yiddish), Rzeszów (Polish)
S
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Saarbrücken
Saarbrücken (German), Sarrebruck (French, Spanish), Sarbriukenas (Lithuanian)
Saarlouis
Sarrelouis (French), Saarlautern (German 1939-1945)
Sagunto
Sagunt (Catalan, German), Sagunto (Italian, Spanish)
Salzburg
Salisburgo (Italian), Salzbourg (French), Salzburg (German, Slovene), Salzburgo (Spanish), Solnograd (old Slovene), Solnohrad (Czech), Zalcburgas (Lithuanian)
Samara
Kujbišev (Slovene), Kuybyshev (former name)
Samarkand
Samarcanda (Catalan, Italian, Spanish), Samarcande (French), Samarkand (Slovene), Samarkanda (Polish), Semerkant (Turkish), Samarkandas (Lithuanian)
San Sebastián
Donostia (Basque), San Sebastián (Spanish), Sant Sebastiŕ (Catalan), Saint-Sébastien (French), San Sebastijanas (Lithuanian)
Santiago de Compostela
Šānt Yāqūb (Arabic), Sant Jaume de Galícia (Catalan), Saint-Jacques-de-Compostelle (French), Santiago de Compostela (Galician, Portuguese), Santiago di Compostella (Italian)
Saragossa
Saragoça (Portuguese), Saragosa (Slovene), Saragossa (Catalan, German, Polish), Saragosse (French), Saragozza (Italian), Zaragoza (Czech, Spanish), Sarkusta (Arabic)
Sarajevo
Sarāyīfū (Arabic), Sarajevo (Slovene), Sarajewo (German, Polish), Saraybosna (Turkish), Szarajevó (Hungarian), Sarajevas (Lithuanian)
Saranda
(Áyii) Saránda (Greek), Sarandë / Saranda (Albanian), Santiquaranta (Italian)
Saverne
Zabern (German)
Schaffhausen
Schaffhouse (French), Schaffhausen (German), Sciaffusa (Italian), Schaffusa (Romansh), Szafuza (Polish)
Schmogrow
Schmogrow (German), Smogorjow (Lower Sorbian)
Schweinfurt
Schweinfurt (German, Slovene), Svinibrod (Czech)
Schwerin
Schwerin (German), Swaryń (Polish), Zuarin (Obotritic), Zvěřín (Czech)
Schwyz
Schwytz (French), Schwyz (German), Svitto (Italian), Sviz (Romansh)
Senj
Segna (Italian), Senj (Croatian, Slovene), Zengg (old Hungarian name)
Seville
al-Išbīliya (Arabic), Hispalis (Latin), Sevila (Slovene), Sevilha (Portuguese), Sevilia (Romanian [obs.]), Seviljo (Esperanto), Sevilla (Catalan, Finnish, Norwegian, Slovak, Spanish, German), Séville (French), Sevilya (Turkish), Sewilla (Polish), Siviglia (Italian), Sevilija (Lithuanian)
Shkodër
Scutari (Italian), Skadar (Czech, Serbian, Slovene), Szkodra (Polish), Skutari (German)
Shrewsbury
Amwythig (Welsh)
Šiauliai
Schaulen (German), Shaulyay (Russian), Shavl - שאַװל (Yiddish), Šiauliai (Lithuanian), Szawle (Polish)
Sibenik
Sebenico (Italian), Šibenik (Croatian, Slovene), Szybenik (Polish)
Sibiu
Sibiň (Czech), Sibiu (Romanian), Hermannstadt (German), Szeben (Hungarian)
Siedlce
Sedlets (Russian), Shedlets - שעדלעץ (Yiddish), Siedlce (Polish)
Sienna
Sienne (French), Siena (Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Slovene, Spanish, Turkish), Siena (Lithuanian)
Sighişoara
Schässburg (German), Segesvár (Hungarian), Sighişoara (Romanian)
Skopje
Shkupi (Albanian), Skop'e (Russian), Skópia (Greek), Skopia (Spanish), Skopie (Bulgarian, Polish), Skopje (Slovene), Skoplje (Serbian, Croatian), Skūbyī (Arabic), Üsküp (Turkish), Skopjė (Lithuanian)
Sligo
Sligeach (Irish)
Solin
Salona (Italian), Solin (Croatian, Slovene)
Sofia
Serdica (Thracian), Sredets (Slav), Sófia (Greek, Portuguese), Sofia (Italian, Polish), Sofía (Spanish), Sofija (Bulgarian, Croatian, Russian, Serbian, Slovene, Ukrainian, Lithuanian), Sofio (Esperanto), Sofya (Turkish), Sūfiyā (Arabic), Szófia (Hungarian)
Solothurn
Soleure (French), Solothurn (German), Soletta (Italian), Soloturn (Romansh), Solura (Polish)
Sřnderborg
Sonderburg (German)
Sopron
Ödenburg (German), Šoproň (Czech), Sopron (Hungarian)
Sovetsk
Sovetsk - Советск (Russian), Sovjetsk (Slovene), Tilsit (German), Tilė (Lithuanian)
Speyer
Spires (English [obs.]), Espira (Spanish, Portuguese), Spire (French), Spira (Italian), Špýr (Czech)
Split
Spalato (Italian), Split (Croatian, Slovene), Splitas (Lithuanian)
Spremberg
Grodk (Lower Sorbian), Spremberg (German)
St. Gallen
Saint-Gall (French), Sankt Gallen (German), San Gallo (Italian), Son Gagl (Romansh), Svatý Havel (Czech)
St. Petersburg
Ayía Petrúpoli (Greek), Peterburg - פּעטערבורג (Yiddish), Peterburi (Estonian), Petroburgo (Esperanto), Pietari (Finnish), Saint-Pétersbourg (French), Sankt-Pecjarburh (Belarusian), Sankt-Peterburg (Russian, Slovene), Sankt Peterburg (Serbian, Slovak), Sanktpēterburga (Latvian), Sankt Peterburgas (Lithuanian), Sankt Petěrburk (Czech), Sankt Petersborg (Danish), Sankt Petersburg (German, Polish, Romanian), Sankt Peterzburg (Serbian), San Petersburgo (Spanish), San Pietroburgo (Italian), Sānt Bītarsbūrġ (Arabic), Săo Petersburgo (Portuguese), Sint-Petersburg (Dutch), St. Petersburg Norwegian, Szentpétervár (Hungarian); Leningrad (former name), Leningrado (former Italian name), Petrograd (former Russian name, former Slovene name), Petrohrad (former Czech name), Piotrogród (former Polish name), Petrapilis (former Lithuanian)
St. Moritz
Sankt Moritz (German), San Murezzan (Romansh), Svatý Mořic (Czech)
Starokonstantinov
Alt-Konstantin (German), Starokonstantinov / Староконстантинов (Russian), Old Constantine (older English name), Starokostyantyniv (Ukrainian)
Stockholm
Estocolm (Catalan), Estocolmo (Portuguese, Spanish), Istūkhūlm (Arabic), Stoccolma (Italian), Stockholm (Norwegian, Slovene, Swedish), Stócólm (Irish), Stokgol'm (Russian), Štokholm (Serbian, Slovak), Stokhol'm (Ukrainian), Stokholma (Latvian), Stokholmas (Lithuanian), Stokholmo (Esperanto), Stokkhólmi (Greek), Stokkhólmur (Icelandic), Sztokholm (Polish), Tukholma (Finnish), Stokholmas (Lithuanian)
Stralsund
Stralsund (German), Strzałowo (Polish)
Strasbourg
Estrasburgo (Portuguese, Spanish), Schdroosburi or Strossburi (Alsatian), Straatsburg (Dutch), Strasbourg (French, Norwegian, Slovene), Strasburg (Polish), Štrasburg (Slovak), Strasburgo (Esperanto, Italian), Štrasburk (Czech), Strassburg (Finnish), Straßburg (German), Strazbur (Serbian), Strasbūras (Lithuanian)
Straubing
Straubing (German), Štrubina (Czech)
Stuttgart
Estugarda (Portuguese), Štíhrad (Czech), Stoccarda (Italian), Stuttgart (German, Norwegian, Slovene), Stoutgárdhi (Greek), tutgartas (Lithuanian)
Subotica
Mariatheresiopel (German), Subotica - Суботица (Serbian), Subotica (Slovene), Szabadka (Hungarian)
Suceava
Shots - שאָץ (Yiddish), Suceava (Romanian), Suczawa (Polish, German)
Swansea
Abertaŭo (Esperanto), Abertawe (Welsh), Swansea (Slovene)
Świnoujście
Swinemünde (German), Świnoujście (Polish)
Syracuse
Syrakus (German), Siracusa (Italian, Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish), Syrakuzy (Polish), Syrakúzy (Slovak), Sirakuza (Serbian), Siraküza (Turkish), Sirakuze (Slovene), Syrakusa (Finnish), Sirakuso (Esperanto), Sirakūzai (Lithuanian), Siragüza (Arabic)
Szczebrzeszyn
Shebreshin שעברעשין (Yiddish), Szczebrzeszyn (Polish)
Szczecin
Scecinum / Stetinum (Latin), Stettin (German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), Szczecin (Polish), Štětín (Czech), Štetín (Slovene), Stettino (Italian), Šćećin (Serbian), tetinas (Lithuanian)
Szczytno
Ortelsburg (German), Ortulfsburg (older German), Szczytno (Polish)
Szeged
Segedín (Czech), Szeged (Hungarian), Seghedino (Italian), Segedyn or Szegedyn (Polish), Seghedin (Romanian)
Székesfehérvár
Stoličný Bělehrad (Czech), Stolni Biograd (Croatian), Stuhlweißenburg (German), Stoličný Belehrad (Slovak), İstolni Belgrad (Turkish)
Szentendre
Sentandreja - Сентандреја (Serbian), Svatý Ondřej (Czech), Szentendre (Hungarian)
Szombathely
Kamenec (Czech), Steinamanger (German), Szombathely (Hungarian, Slovene)
T
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Tallinn
Lindanissa (Latin variant), Rävel (old Swedish name), Reval (old German name), Revalia (Latin), Rewal or Tallin (Polish), Tālīn (Arabic), Talinas (Lithuanian), Taljin (Serbian), Tallin (Norwegian, Russian, Swedish, Slovak, Spanish), Tallina (Latvian), Tallinna (Finnish)
Tampere
Tammerfors (Swedish), Tampere (Finnish), Tamperė (Lithuanian)
Taranto
Taranto (Italian), Táras (ancient Greek), Tarent (Czech, German, Serbian), Tarente (French), Tarento (Spanish), Tarentum (Latin)
Târgu Mureş
Marosvásárhely (Hungarian), Neumarkt (German), Târgu Mureş or Tîrgu Mureş (Romanian)
Tarnów
Tarne - טארנע (Yiddish), Tarnów (Polish)
Tartu
Derpet - דערפּעט (Yiddish), Dorpat (German, Polish), Tērbata (Latvian, before 1918), Tartto (Finnish), Yur'yev (Russian)
Tashkent
Tašqand (Arabic), Tasjkent (Dutch, Swedish), Tachkent (French), Taskéndē (Greek), Taskent (Hungarian), Taszkient / Taszkent (Polish), Taškent (Russian, Ukrainian, Slovak, Croatian, Serbian), Taşkent (Romanian, Turkish), Toshkent (Uzbek), Taschkent (German), Takentas (Lithuanian)
Tbilisi
Teflis - تفلیس (Persian), Tiflīs (Arabic), Tbilissi (French), Tbilisi (Georgian, Italian, Romanian, Slovene), Tiflis (German, Italian [obs.], Spanish, Turkish), Tyflída (Greek), Tbiliszi (Hungarian), Tibilisi / Tyflis (Polish), Tbilisis (Lithuanian)
Tekirdağ
Rodosto (Greek), Rodostó (Hungarian)
Terezín
Terezín (Czech, Slovak), Theresienstadt (German)
Těšín
Cieszyn (Polish), Teschen (German), Tešín (Slovak)
The Hague
L'Aia (Italian), Gaaga (Russian), De Haach (Frisian), Den Haag / 's-Gravenhage (Dutch), Haag (Czech, Finnish, Slovak, Slovene), Den Haag / der Haag (German), Haaha (Ukrainian), Hag (Serbian), Haga (Polish, Romanian, Lithuanian), Hága (Hungarian), Haia (Portuguese), An Háig (Irish), La Haya (Spanish), La Haye (French), Kháyi (Greek), Lāhāy (Arabic), Lahey (Turkish)
Thessaloniki
Saloniki (alternative Greek name), Săruna (Aromanian), Soluň (Czech), Thessalonique (French), Saloniki (German, Polish), Salonicco / Tessalonica (Italian), Salonic (Romanian), Selanik (Turkish), Solún (Slovak), Solun (Bulgarian, Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian, Slovene), Salonica (alternative English name), Salónica (alternative Spanish name) Tesalónica (Spanish), Tessalónica (Portuguese), Tessalonika (Finnish), Salonikai (Lithuanian)
Thionville
Diedenhofen (German), Diedenhoven (former Dutch name), Thionville (French)
Timişoara
Temešvár (Czech, Slovak), Temeswar / Temeschburg / (Temeschwar) (German), Temesvár (Hungarian), Temišvar (Croatian, Serbian, Slovene), Timişoara (Romanian), Timiszoara (Polish), Tamışvar (Turkish)
Tipperary
Tiobraid Árann (Irish)
Tirana
Tiranë / Tirana (Albanian), Tirana (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Tiran (Turkish)
Tongeren
Tongeren (Dutch), Tongern (German), Tongres (French), Tongue (Walloon), Aduatuca (Latin)
Tórshavn
Thorshavn (Danish), Ţórshöfn (Icelandic)
Tornio
Duortnus (Northern Sami), Torneĺ (Swedish), Tornio (Finnish)
Toruń
Toruń (Polish), Toruň (Czech), Thorn (German), civitas Torunensis (Latin), Torń (Kashubian)
Toulon
Tolone (Italian), Toulon (French) Tulon (Polish)
Toulouse
Tolosa de Llenguadoc (Catalan), Tolosa (Italian, Latin, former Spanish name), Toulouse (French, Portuguese), Tuluza (Polish), Tuluz (Serbian) , Tulūza (Lithuanian)
Trebizond
Trabzon (Turkish), Trapezunt (German, Finnish, Polish, Romanian [obs.]), Trapezúnda (Greek), Trebisonda (Spanish, Italian, Portuguese), Trébizonde (French)
Trent
Trento (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Trient (German), Trident (Czech), Trente (French, Dutch), Trydent (Polish)
Trier
Trevír (Czech, Slovak), Trčves (French), Treviri (Italian), Trewir (Polish), Tréveris (Spanish, Portuguese), Trive (Walloon)
Trieste
Tergeste (Latin), Terst (Czech), Triëst (Dutch), Triest (German, Polish), Trieste (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Trst (Croatian, Serbian, Slovene)
Trogir
Traů (Italian), Trogir (Croatian)
Trondheim
Nidaros (Norwegian 997-15th century and again 1930), Trondhjem (Dano-Norwegian 15th century-1929), Trondheim (Norwegian 1931-1939 and 1945-present), Drontheim (1940-1945) (German name during WWII occupation), Ţrándheimur (Icelandic), Trondheimas (Lithuanian)
Tromsř
Tromssa (Finnish, Sami)
Tübingen
Tubinga (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish), Tubingue (French), Tubinky / Tybinky (Czech), Tybinga (Polish)
Turin
Torí (Catalan), Torino (Italian, Croatian, Hungarian, Romanian, Serbian, Slovene, Finnish, Turkish), Turijn (Dutch), Turim (Portuguese), Turín (Czech, Slovak, Spanish), Turyn (Polish), Turinas (Lithuanian)
Turku
Åbo (Swedish), Aboa / Aboia / Turcua (Latin), Turu (Estonian), Turku (Finnish)
Tver
Kalinin (former name), Tver (Italian, Slovene), Twer (Polish, German), Tverė (Lithuanian)
Tyszowce
Tishevits טישעװיץ (Yiddish), Tyszowce (Polish)
U
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Überlingen
Überlingen (German), Jibrovice (Czech)
Udine
Udin (Friulian), Udine (Italian), Videm (Czech), Udinė (Lithuanian)
Ulcinj
Dulcigno (Italian), Ulcinj (Croatian, Serbian)
Ulm
Ulm (German), Ulma (Italian), Ulmas (Lithuanian)
Ulyanovsk
Simbirsk (former name), Uljanovsk (Serbian, Slovene), Uljanowsk (German), Uljanovskas (Lithuanian)
Umag
Umago (Italian), Umag (Croatian)
Umeĺ
Uumaja (Finnish)
Utrecht
Traiectum (Latin), Utert (Frisian), Utrecht (Dutch), Utreĥto (Esperanto), Utrechtas (Lithuanian), Utrek (Walloon)
Uzhhorod
Ungvár (Hungarian), Ungvir , Ingver, Yngvyr - אונגװיר (Yiddish), Ungwar (German), Uschhorod (German), Užgorod - Ужгород (Russian), Užhorod - Ужгородъ (Ruthenian), Užhorod (Slovak), Užhorod - Ужгород (Ukrainian)
V
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Vaasa
Vasa (Swedish), Waza (Polish), Nikolainkaupunki (alternative old Finnish name), Nikolaistad (alternative old Swedish name)
Valencia
Valčncia (Catalan), Valence (French), Valencia (Slovene, Spanish), Valęncia (Portuguese), Valencio or Valencujo (Esperanto), Walencja (Polish), Valensija (Lithuanian)
Valkenburg
Valkenburg (Dutch), Fauquemont (old French)
Valletta
il-Belt (colloquial Maltese), il-Belt Valletta (Maltese), Fālītā (Arabic), Valéta (Greek), La Valeta (Portuguese, Spanish), La Valette (French), La Valletta (Italian, Polish, Slovak), Valeta (Lithuanian)
Venice
Benátky (Czech, Slovak), Benetke (Slovene), al-Bunduqīya (Arabic), Feneyjar (Icelandic), An Veinéis (Irish), Velence (Hungarian), Venčcia (Catalan), Venecia (Spanish), Venecija (Bulgarian, Croatian, Serbian, Russian, Ukrainian, Lithuanian), Veneco (Esperanto), Venedig (Danish, German, Swedish), Venedik (Turkish), Venetía (Greek), Veneţia (Romanian), Venetië (Dutch), Venetsia (Finnish), Veneza (Portuguese), Venezia (Italian), Venise (French), Venetsye - װענעציע (Yiddish), Wenecja (Polish)
Vienna
Beč (Croatian, Serbian), Bécs (Hungarian), Dunaj (Slovene), Fienna (Welsh), Vena (Russian, Ukrainian), Vīne (Latvian), Vídeň (Czech), Viedeň (Slovak), Viena (Catalan, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian), Vienna (Italian), Vienne (French), Viénni (Greek), Vieno (Esperanto), Vin - װין (Yiddish), Vín (Irish), Vindobona (Latin), Viyana (Turkish), Wenen (Dutch), Wiedeń (Polish), Wien (Finnish, German, Swedish)
Villach
Bělák (Czech), Beljak (Slovene), Bilachium (Latin), Villach (German), Villaco (Italian)
Vilnius
Filniyūs (Arabic), Vilna (Italian, Spanish, Slovene, Finnish, Norwegian, Russian), Vilne - װילנע (Yiddish), Viļņa (Latvian), Vil'nja / Vil'njus (Belarusian), Vil'njus (Russian, Ukrainian), Vilnjus (Serbian), Vilno (Czech, Russian), Wilna (German), Wilno (Polish)
Visé
Visé (French), Wezet (Dutch)
Vitoria
Gasteiz (Basque), Vitoria (Spanish), Vitória (Portuguese), Vitorija (Lithuanian)
Vitsyebsk
Vitebsk - Витебск (Russian) - Vitebsk - װיטעבסק Yiddish), Vitsyebsk - Віцебск (Belarusian), Witebsk (Polish)
Vladikavkaz
Ordzhonikidze (former name 1932-1944 and 1954-1990), Dzaudzhikau (former name 1944-1954), Vladikaukazas (Lithuanian)
Vlorë
Vlorë / Vlora (Albanian), Valona (Italian, Serbian), Aulona (ancient name), Avlonya (Turkish)
Volgograd
Stalingrad (former name), Tsaritsyn (former name), Wołgograd (Polish), Carycyn (former Polish name), Volgograd (Slovene), Volgogrado (Portuguese, Spanish), Wolgograd (German), Estalinegrado (former Portuguese name), Estalingrado (former Spanish name), Stalingrado (former Italian name), Volgogradas (Lithuanian)
Vyborg
Viiburi (Estonian), Viipuri (Finnish), Viborg (Swedish), Wiburg (German)
W
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Wangen
Vanky (Czech), Wangen (German)
Waremme
Waremme (French), Borgworm (Dutch), Warčme / Wareme (Walloon)
Warsaw
Vársá (Irish), Varšava (Belarusian, Czech, Croatian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Ukrainian), Varsavia (Italian), Varshe - װאַרשע (Yiddish), Varsjá (Icelandic), Varsó (Hungarian), Varsova (Finnish), Varşova (Turkish), Varsovia (Latin, Spanish), Varsovía (Greek), Varsóvia (Portuguese), Varşovia (Romanian), Varsovie (French), Varsovio (Esperanto), Varssavi (Estonian), Varšuva (Lithuanian), Warschau (Dutch, German), Wārsū (Arabic), Warszawa (Polish)
Waterford
Port Láirge (Irish)
Waver
Wavre (French), Waver (Dutch), Auve / Wĺve (Walloon)
Weimar
Výmar (Czech), Weimar (German), Veimaras (Lithuanian)
Wejherowo
Neustadt in Westpreußen (German), Wejherowo (Polish)
Wexford
Loch Garman (Irish)
Wicklow
Cill Mhantáin (Irish)
Winchester
Caerwynt (Welsh)
Wolgast
Wolgast (German), Wołogoszcz (Polish)
Worcester
Caerwrangon (Welsh)
Worms
Vermayze װערמײַזע (Yiddish), Wormacja (Polish), Wormazia (Italian [obs.]), Worms (German)
Wroclaw
Wrocław (Polish), Vratislav (Czech), Vratislavia / Wratislavia / Wracislavia (Latin), Breslau (Dutch, German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish), Wroclaw (Finnish, Slovene), Vratislav / Vroclav (Slovak, Serbian), Breslavia (Italian), Vroclavas (Lithuanian)
Würzburg
Wörzborg (Low Saxon), Würzburg (German), Wurzburgo (Spanish)
Y
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Yekaterinburg
Jekaterinburg (Serbian, Finnish, German, Slovene, Swedish), Jekaterynburg (Polish), Ekaterinbourg (French), Ekaterinburg (Romanian), Ekaterimburgo (Spanish), Sverdlovsk (former name), Jekaterinburgas (Lithuanian)
Yerevan
Yirīfān (Arabic), Erevan (French, English [rare], Romanian, Slovene), Jerewan / Eriwan (German), Jereván (Hungarian), Erywań or Erewań / Erewan (Polish), Jerevan (Czech, Finnish, Russian, Ukrainian, Slovak, Serbian), Ereván (Spanish), Erivan (Turkish), Jerevanas (Lithuanian)
York
Caerefrog / Efrog (Welsh), Eabhrac (Irish), Eboracum (Latin), Efrawg (Breton, Cornish), Iorc (Scots Gaelic), Jorvik (ancient Scandinavian), Jórvík (Icelandic), Jork (Polish)Jorko (Esperanto), Jorkas (Lithuanian)
Ypres
Ieper (Dutch), Ypres (French), Ypern (German), Ipro (Esperanto)
Z
English Name
Other name(s) or older name(s)
Zabrze
Hindenburg (German 1915-1945), Zabrze (Polish)
Zadar
Zara (Italian), Zára (Hungarian), Zadar (Croatian), Zadaras (Lithuanian)
Zagreb
Zaġrib (Arabic), Záhřeb (Czech), Záhreb (Slovak), Agram (German [obs.]), Zágráb (Hungarian), Zagabria (Italian), Zagrzeb (Polish), Zagreb (Slovene), Zagrep (Turkish), Zahreb (Ukrainian), Zâgreb (Serbian), Zagrebo (Esperanto), Zagrebas (Lithuanian)
Zeebrugge
Seebrügge (German), Zeebruges (French)
Zhytomyr
Zhitomir - Житомир (Russian), Zhitomir - זשיטאָמיר (Yiddish), Zhytomyr Житомир (Ukrainian), Żytomierz (Polish), Jitomir (Romanian)
Zielona Góra
Grünberg (German), Mons Viridis (Latin), Zielona Góra (Polish)
Zittau
Žitava (Czech), Zittau (German), Żytawa (Polish)
Znamensk
Vėluva (Lithuanian), Wehlau (German), Welawa (Polish), Znamensk (Russian)
Znojmo
Znaim (German), Znojmo (Polish)
Zolochiv
Złoczew or Złoczów (Polish), Zlotshev - זלאָטשעװ (Yiddish), Zolochev (Russian), Zolochiv (Ukrainian)
Zug
Zoug (French), Zug (German, Romansh), Zugo (Italian)
Zurich
Zūrīk (Arabic), Cirih (Serbian), Ciūrichas (Lithuanian), Cjurikh (Russian, Ukrainian), Curiĥo (Esperanto), Curych (Czech), Turitg (Romansh), Zurich (French), Zürich (German, Finnish, Slovene, Swedish), Zúrich (Spanish), Zurigo (Italian), Zürih (Turkish), Zurique (Portuguese), Zurych (Polish), Zyríkhi (Greek)
Zwickau
Cvikov (Czech), Zwickau (German)
See also:
External link: